Nearly four centuries of disunity and instability followed the disintegration of the Han dynasty in the third century after Christ. Cultural development and the intellectual tradition suffered setbacks during the period of the Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties (220-589). Confucianism lost its standing of state cult. Taoism was revived and a foreign religion, Buddhism, was introduced. The hold of Confucianism remained strong, however, and played a part in influencing both the neo-Taoists and Buddhists.
Neo-Taoism centered around the study of the Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu and expressed itself through metaphysics, esthetics and religion. Wang Pi (226-249) and Ho Yen (died 249) reinterpreted Taoism in terms of Confucian moral and social philosophy. To them the Taoist concept of wu (nonexistence) is pure being rather than nothingness. It transcends forms and names and can accomplish anything. The sage does not withdraw from society but contributes to social and political progress, although through nonaction.
Kuo Hsiang (died 312) and Hsiang Hsiu wrote in their commentary on the Chuang Tzu:
“The music of nature is not an entity existing outside of things. The different apertures, the pipes and flutes and the like, in combination with all living beings, together constitute nature. Since nonexistence is nonbeing, it cannot produce being. Before being itself is produced, it cannot produce other beings. Then by whom are things produced? They spontaneously produce themselves, that is all. By this is not meant that there is an “I” to produce. The “I” cannot produce things and things cannot produce the “I”. The “I” is self-existent. Because it is so by itself, we call it natural. Everything is what it is by nature, not through taking any action. Therefore (Chuang Tzu) speaks in terms of nature. The term nature (Heaven) is used to explain that things are what they are spontaneously, and not to mean the blue sky. But someone says that the music of nature makes all things serve or obey it. Now, nature cannot even possess itself. How can it possess things? Nature is the general name for all things.
“Not only is it impossible for nonbeing to be changed into being. It is also impossible for being to become nonbeing. Therefore, although being as a substance undergoes infinite changes and transformations, it cannot in any instance become nonbeing. What came into existence before there were things? If we say yin and yang came first, then since yin and yang are themselves entities, what came before them? Suppose I say nature came first. But nature is only things being themselves. Suppose I say perfect Tao came first. But perfect Tao is perfect nonbeing. Since it is non-being, how can it come before anything else? Then what came before it? There must be another thing, and so on ad infinitum. We must understand that things are what they are spontaneously and not caused by someone else.
“Everything is natural and does not know why it is so. The more things differ in corporeal form, the more they are alike in being natural. Heaven and earth and the myriad things change and transform into something new every day and so proceed with time. What causes them? They are of spontaneous origin. What we call things are all that they are by themselves; they did not cause each other to become so. Let us leave them alone and the principle of being will be perfectly realized. The 10,000 things are in 10,000 different conditions, and move forward and backward differently, as though there were a True Lord to make them so. But if we search for evidences for such a True Lord, we fail to find any. We should understand that things are all natural and not caused by something else.
“The universe is the general name for all things. They are the reality of the universe while nature is their norm. Being natural means to exist spontaneously without having to take any action. Therefore the fabulous p’eng bird can soar high and the quail can flow low, the cedrela can live for a long time and the mushroom for a short time. They are capable of doing these not because of their taking any action but because of their being natural.
“If we insist on conditions under which things develop and search for the cause thereof, such search and insistence will never end until we come to something that is unconditioned, and then the principles of self-transformation will become clear. There are people who say that the penumbra is conditioned by the shadow, the shadow by the body and the body by the Creator. But let us ask whether there is a Creator or not. If not, how can he create things? If there is, he is incapable of materializing all the forms. Therefore before we can talk about creation, we must understand the fact that all forms materialize by themselves. If we go through the entire realm of existence, we shall see that there is nothing, not even the penumbra, that does not transform itself beyond the phenomenal world. Hence everything creates itself without the direction of any Creator. Since things create themselves, they are unconditioned. This is the form of the universe.
“In the cutting of a tree the workman does not take any action; the only action he takes is in plying the ax. In the actual managing of affairs, the ruler does not take any action; the only action he takes is in employing his ministers. If the minister can manage affairs, the ruler can employ ministers, the ax can cut the tree and the workman can use the ax, each corresponding to his capacity, then the laws of nature will operate of themselves, not because someone takes action. If the ruler docs the work of his ministers, he will no longer be the ruler, and if the ministers control the ruler’s employment, they will no longer be ministers. Therefore when each attends to his own responsibility, both ruler and ruled will be contented and the principle of taking no action will be attained.
“It is he who does no governing who can govern the empire. Therefore Yao governed by not governing; it was not because of his governing that the empire was governed. Now Hsu-yu (the recluse) only realized that since the empire was well governed, he should not replace Yao. He thought it was Yao who did the actual governing. Consequently he said to Yao: ‘You govern the empire.’ He should have forgotten such words and investigated into that condition of peace. Someone must say: ‘It was Yao who actually governed and put the empire in good order but it was Hsu-yu who enabled Yao to do so by refusing to govern himself.’ This is a great mistake. Yao was an adequate example of governing by not governing and acting by not acting. Why should we have to resort to Hsu-yu? Are we to insist that a man fold his arms and sit in silence in the middle of some mountain forest before we will say he is practicing nonaction? This is why the words of Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu are rejected by responsible officials. This is why responsible officials insist on remaining in the realm of action without feeling any regret.
“By taking no action is not meant folding one’s arms and closing one’s mouth. If we simply let everything act by itself, it will be contented with its nature and destiny. To have no alternative but to rule an empire is not to be forced into doing so by power of punishment. If only Tao is embraced and simplicity cherished, and what has to be is allowed to run its maximum course, then the world will naturally be contented with itself.
“If a person is perfectly at ease with his spirit and physical power, whether he lifts something heavy or carries something light, it is due to the fact that he is using his strength to a desired degree. If a person loves fame and is fond of supremacy and is not satisfied even when he has broken his back in the attempt, it is due to the fact that human knowledge knows no limit. Therefore what is called knowledge is born of our losing our balance and will be eliminated when ultimate capacity is realized intuitively. Intuitively realizing ultimate capacity means allowing one’s lot to reach its highest degree, and in the case of lifting weights, not adding so much as an ounce beyond that. Therefore though a person carries 10,000 pounds, if it is equal to his capacity he will suddenly forget the weight upon his body. Though a person attends to 10,000 matters, if his capacity is equal to them he will be utterly unaware that the affairs are upon him. These are the fundamentals for the cultivation of life. If one attains the Mean and intuitively realizes the proper limit, everything can be done. The cultivation of life does not seek to exceed one’s lot but to preserve the principle of things and to live out one’s allotted span of time.
“Joy and sorrow are the results of gains and losses. A gentleman who profoundly penetrates all things and is in harmony with their transformation will be contented with whatever time may bring. He follows the course of nature in whatever situation he may be. He will be intuitively united with creation. He will be himself wherever he may be. Where does gain or loss, life or death, come in? Therefore, if one lets what he has received from nature take its own course, there will be no place for joy or sorrow.
“Allow the foot to walk according to its capacity, and let the hand grasp according to its strength. Listen to what the ear hears and see what the eye sees. In knowing, stop at what cannot be known. In action, stop at what cannot be done. Employ the faculties as they would use themselves. Do things that would be done by themselves. Be unrestrained within one’s lot but do not attempt the least outside it. This is the easiest way of taking no (unnatural) action. There has never been a case of taking no action and yet of one’s nature and life not being preserved, and I have never heard of any principle according to which the preservation of nature and life is not a blessing.
“The expert driver utilizes the natural capacity of horses to its limit. To use the capacity to its limit lies in letting it take its own course. If forced to run at a rapid pace, with the expectation that they can exceed their capacity, horses will be unable to bear it and many will die. On the other hand, if both worn out and thoroughbred horses are allowed to use their proper strength and to adapt their pace to their given lot, even if they travel to the borders of the country, their nature will be fully preserved. But there are those who, upon hearing the doctrine of allowing the nature of horses to take its own course, will say: ‘Then set the horses free and do not ride on them’; and there are those who, upon hearing the doctrine of taking no action, will immediately say: ‘It is better to lie down than to walk.’ Why are they so much off the track and unable to return? In this they have missed Chuang Tzu’s ideas to a very high degree.
“If one is contented wherever he goes, he will be at ease wherever he may be. Even life and death cannot affect him, much Jess flood or fire. The perfect man is not besieged by calamities, not because he escapes from them but because he advances the principles of things and goes forward and naturally comes into union with good fortune.
“Man in society cannot get away from his fellow beings. The changes in society vary from generation to generation according to different standards. Only those who have no minds of their own and do not use their own judgment can adapt themselves to changes and not be burdened by them.
“Events that took place in the past have disappeared from the past. Some may be transmitted to us (in writing), but can this make the past exist in the present? The past is not in the present and even every present is soon changed. Therefore only when one abandons the pursuit of knowledge, lets nature take its own course, and changes with the times, can he be perfect.
“Humanity and righteousness are principles of human nature. Human nature undergoes changes and is different past and present. If one takes a temporary abode in a thing and then moves on, he will intuit (the reality of things). If, however, he stops and is confined to one place, he will develop prejudices. Prejudices will result in hypocrisy and hypocrisy will result in many reproaches.
“To cry as people cry is a manifestation of the mundane world. To identify life and death, forget joy and sorrow, and be able to sing in the presence of the corpse is the perfection of transcendental existence. Therefore the principles of things have their ultimates, and internal and external reality are to be intuited by means of each other. There has never been a person who has roamed over the entire realm of external reality and yet has not intuited internal reality, nor has there been anyone who could intuit internal reality and yet did not roam over the realm of external reality.
“Although the sage is in the midst of government, his mind seems to be in the mountain forest. His abode is in the myriad things, but it does not mean that he does not wander freely.
“When a thousand people gather together with no one as their leader, they will be either unruly or disorganized. Therefore when there are many virtuous people, there should not be many rulers, but when there is no virtuous person, there should be a ruler. This is the principle of Heaven and man and the Illost proper thing to do.
“The ceremonies of ancient kings were intended to meet the needs of the time. When the time has past and the ceremonies are still not cast away, they will become an evil influence to the people and serve to hasten the start of affectations and imitation.
“When the king does not make himself useful in various offices, the various officials will manage their own affairs. Those with clear vision will do the seeing, those with sharp ears will do the listening, the wise will do the planning and the strong will provide protection. What need is there to take any action? Only profound silence, that is all.”
Intellectuals met in groups from the third to the sixth centuries for learned discourse - ch’ing-t’an - or “pure conversation”. The most famous of these groups was known as the “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove”, including Juan Chi, Hsi K’ang and Hsiang Hsiu. The name derived from the fact that they met in bamboo groves north of Lo-yang, the capital of the state of Wei. These are excerpts from the writings of Hsi K’ang:
“A gentleman is so called because he is not fixed in his mind as to what is right and wrong, but acts without violating Tao. How is this? He whose vital force is tranquil and whose spirit is absolutely peaceful and pure does not occupy his mind with attachments. And he whose physical faculties are clear and whose mental faculties are enlightened does not allow his feelings to be bound by desires. Since his mind is not occupied with attachments, he is able to transcend the established doctrines of social relations and let nature take its own course. And since his feelings are not bound by desires, he is able to discern what is noble and what is lowly and be in harmony with the feelings of people and things. Because he is in harmony with the feelings of people, he does not violate the Great Tao, and because he transcends social ranks and lets his mind take its own course he is not predetermined about what is right and what is wrong. Therefore when we talk about the gentleman, absence of predetermination is the point of fundamental importance and harmony with things is the point of excellence. When we talk about the inferior man, we consider his concealment of feelings as’ wrong and his violation of Tao as a defect.
“Obey laws and follow principles so as not to fall into the net (of the law). Honor the self for its freedom from crime, and enjoy peaceful leisure in the lack of burden. Roam in the realm of truth and righteousness, and lie down and rest in a humble abode. Be quiet, be at ease, and have nothing to thwart your wishes, and then your spirit and vital force will be in harmonious order. Is it necessary to have glory and splendor before one has honor? Cultivate the field to raise food and weave silk for clothing. When these are sufficient, leave the wealth of the world alone. Do as a thirsty person drinking from a river. He drinks happily enough, but does not covet the voluminous flow. Does one have to depend on an accumulation to be wealthy? This is how the gentleman exercises his mind, for he regards rank and position as a tumor and material wealth as dirt and dust. What is the use of wealth and honor to him?
“What is difficult to acquire in the world is neither wealth nor glory, but a sense of contentment. If one is contented, though he has only a small plot to cultivate, a coarse garment to wear, and beans to eat, in no case is he not satisfied. If one is discontented, though the whole world supports him and all things serve him, he is still not gratified. Thus it is that the contented needs nothing from outside whereas the discontented needs everything from the outside. Needing everything, he is always in want no matter where he goes. Needing nothing, he lacks nothing regardless of where he may be. If he does not indulge his will because he enjoys splendor and glory, nor chase after vulgarity because he lives in obscurity, but moves and has his being with all things as one and cannot be either favored or disgraced, he is then really honored and wealthy. This is what the Lao Tzu means when it says: ‘There is no greater happiness than freedom from worry, and there is no greater wealth than contentment.’”
Tao fatalism is expressed in an essay from the Lieh Tzu that is erroneously attributed to the philosopher Yang Chu, who lived in the 440-360 B.C. period. The writer was probably a neo-Taoist of the third century.
“Yang Chu said: The longest life is but a hundred years, and not one man in a thousand lives to that age. Suppose there is one who does. Half of that time is occupied with infancy and senility. Of the other half, almost half is wasted in sleep at night and naps in the day. And almost half of the remainder is lost in pain, illness, sorrow, grief, death and loss (of relatives and friends). I would estimate that in the 10 years or more that is left to him a man has hardly one hour in which he is quite content and free from the slightest worry. Then what is the purpose of life? What is the joy of life? Life is only for the enjoyment of beauty and wealth, and sound and color. But beauty and wealth cannot always be enjoyed to satisfaction, and color and sound cannot always be indulged in. Instead, we are forbidden by penalties from doing this and arc exhorted by rewards to do that. Fame causes us to advance, and the law forces us to retreat. Nervously we struggle for the hollow praise of the moment, and try to arrange things so as to extend our glory after death. In gingerly fashion we exercise the utmost caution over what we hear with our ears and what we see with our eyes. We grieve over the right and wrong of our body and mind. Thus we do but miss the perfect happiness of the years as they go by, and cannot give ourselves free rein for even an hour. What is the difference between this and being doubly chained inside an inner prison?
“Yang Chu said: In life the myriad things are different. At death they are similar. In life some are virtuous, some are stupid, some are honored and some are lowly. This is how they differ. When dead, they stink, rot, disintegrate and disappear. This is how they are similar. However, all this, from virtue to disappearance, is not of their own doing, and life, death, virtue, stupidity, honor and lowliness are not what they have achieved for themselves. In these respects the myriad things are ultimately equal. Whether one lives for ten years or for a hundred, and whether one is a benevolent sage or a stupid criminal, everyone dies. In life one may be as sagely as Yao and Shun or as vicious as Chieh and Chou, but after death everyone turns to rotten bones. And rotten bones are all alike; who can tell them apart? Let us enjoy this life. Why be concerned about the hereafter?”
Taoism’s influence upon Chinese art was set forth during the Chin dynasty (265-420). Tao glorified nature and gave the painter a free approach to landscape. This “Introduction to Landscape Painting” is by Tsung Ping (375-443):
“Having embraced Tao, the sage responds harmoniously to things. Having purified his mind, the worthy man enjoys forms. As to landscapes, they exist in material substance and soar into the realm of the spirit. Therefore men like the Yellow Emperor, Yao, Confucius, Kuang-ch’eng, Ta-wei, Hsu Yu and the brothers of Ku-chu (Po Yi and Shu Ch’i) insisted on traveling among the mountains of K’ung-t’ung, Chu-tz’u, Miao-ku, Chi-shou and Ta-meng. These are also called the delights of the man of humanity and the man of wisdom. Now the sage, by the exercise of his spirit, follows Tao as his standard, while the worthy man understands this. Mountains and rivers in their form pay homage to Tao, and the man of humanity delights in them. Do not the sage and mountains and rivers have much in common?
“I was strongly attached to the Lu and Heng mountains and had missed for a long time Mts. Ching and Wu, and do not realize that old age was coming on. I am ashamed that I can no longer concentrate my vital power or nourish my body, and I am distressed to follow the steps of people like the keeper of the Stone Gate (who ridiculed Confucius for trying to do the impossible). Therefore I draw forms and spread colors, and create these mountain peaks capped with clouds.
“Now, the Principle that was lost in ancient times may, through imagination, be found in the thousand years yet to come. Meanings that are subtle and beyond the expression of words and symbols may be grasped by the mind through books and writings. How much more so in my case, when I have personally lingered among the mountains and, with my own eyes, observed them all around me, so that I render forms as I find the forms to be and apply colors as I see them.
“Further more, as the K’un-lun mountain is very large and pupils of the eye are very small, if the shape of the mountain is forced within an inch of my eyes, I cannot see its form, but if it is placed several miles away, it can be enclosed within the square inch of my pupils. For the truth is that the farther the object, the smaller it becomes. Now, as I spread the silk to reflect distant scenery, the form of the K’un-lun and Lang mountains can be enclosed within the space of a square inch. A vertical stroke of three inches equals a height of several thousand feet, and a horizontal stroke of a few feet embodies an area of a hundred miles. Therefore, in viewing paintings, one’s concern is that the artistic representation may not be skillful, rather than that small proportion might spoil the likeness, for it is a natural condition that proportion will preserve likeness. In this way the sublime beauty of the Sung and Hua mountains and the spirit of the Profound Mother (the Spirit of the Valley) may be reproduced in one picture.
“If truth is understood as to what is responsive to the eye and appreciable to the mind, then when the representation is skillful, the eye also responds and the mind also appreciates. Such response and appreciation arouse the spirit. As the spirit soars high, truth is attained. What is there to gain by merely searching for the dark crags?
“Furthermore, fundamentally spirit has no sign and yet it dwells in all physical forms and acts on all species. As truth enters into a thing, it is reflected like a shadow, in its manifestations. If one can truly depict them with skill, one can truly be said to have achieved perfection.
“And so I live in leisure and nourish my vital power. I drain clean the wine cup, play the lute, lay down the picture of scenery, face it in silence and, while seated, travel beyond the four borders of the land, never leaving the realm where nature exerts her influence, and alone responding to the calls of wilderness. Here the cliffs and peaks seem to rise to soaring heights, and groves in the midst of clouds are dense and extend to the vanishing point. Sages and virtuous men of far antiquity come back to live in my imagination and all interesting things come together in my spirit, and in my thoughts. What else need I do? I gratify my spirit, that is all. What is there that is more important than gratifying the spirit?”
This is the “Introduction to Painting” of Wang Wei (415-443):
“People who discuss painting merely concentrate on the outward aspects and structural effects. Men of ancient times, however, when they produced paintings did not merely record the sites of cities, delineate country districts, mark out the boundaries of towns and villages or sketch the courses of rivers. Physical appearances are based upon physical forms, but the mind is changing and ever active. But spirit is invisible, and therefore what it enters into does not move. The eye is limited in scope, and therefore what it enters into docs not move. The eye is limited in scope, and therefore what it sees does not cover all. Thus, by using one small brush, I draw the infinite vacuity (the universe in its undifferentiated state) and by employing the clear vision of my small pupils to the limit, I paint a large body. With a curved line I represent the Sung mountain ranges. With an interesting line I represent the (mythical mountain) Fang-chang. A swift stroke will be sufficient for the T’ai-hua mountain, and some irregular dots will show a dragon’s nose. In the latter, the eyebrows, forehead and cheeks all seem to be a serene smile, and in the former, the lonely cliff is so luxuriant and sublime that it seems to emit clouds. With changes and variations in all directions, movement is created, and by applying proportions and measure, the spirit is revealed. After this, things like the temples and shrines, and boats and carriages are grouped together according to kind, and creatures like dogs, horses, birds and fish are distinguished according to their shape. This is the ultimate of painting.
“Gazing upon the clouds of autumn, my spirit takes wings and soars. Facing the breeze of spring, my thoughts flow like great, powerful currents. Even the music of metal and stone instruments and the treasure of priceless jades cannot match the pleasure of this. I unroll pictures and examine documents, I compare and distinguish the mountains and seas. The wind rises from the green forest, and foaming water rushes in the stream. Alas! Such paintings cannot be achieved by the physical movements of the fingers and the hand, but only the spirit entering into them. This is the nature of painting.”
Philosophical or religious Taoism establishes the objective of the long and serene life. Lao Tzu taught that this was to be attained through simplicity, tranquility and enlightenment. Yang Chu added escape from injury and the preservation of one’s being. Chuang Tzu completed the system with nature, spiritual freedom and indifference to life and death. Taoism was the state religion of China at various times in the first millennium of the Christian era. Many mystical and magic concepts were introduced along the way. Taoism has one of the largest pantheons of any religion and an intensive system of divination, astrology and superstitions.
Ko Hung (253-333) wrote Pao-p’u Tzu (“The Philospher Who Embraces Simplicity”) in an attempt to combine Confucian ethics with Taoist occultism. His three basic doctrines are immorality on earth, internal and external alchemy, and a merit system under which specific deeds account for the increase or decrease of a specific number of days in man’s life span. Selections from Ko Hung follow:
“The Belief in Immortals” - “Someone asked: Is it really possible that spiritual beings and immortals do not die?
“Pao-p’u Tzu said: Even if we had the greatest power of vision, we could not see all the things that have corporeal form. Even if we were endowed with the sharpest sense of hearing, we could not hear all the sounds there are. Even if we had the feet of Ta-chang and Hsu-hai (runners), what we had already trod upon would not be so much as what we have not. And even if we had the knowledge of the sages Yu, Yi and Ch’is-hsieh, what we know would not be so much as what we do not know. The myriad things flourish. What is there that could not exist? Why should there not be a way to immortality?
“Thereupon the questioner laughed heartily and said: Whatever has a beginning necessarily has au end, and whatever lives must eventually die. I have only heard that some plants dry up and wither before frost, fade in color during the summer, bud but do not flower, or wither and are stripped of leaves before bearing fruit. But I have never heard of anyone who enjoys a life span of 10,000 years and an everlasting existence without end. Therefore people of antiquity did not aspire to be immortals in their pursuit of knowledge, and did not talk of strange things in their conversation. They cast aside perverse doctrines and adhered to what is natural. They set aside the tortoise and the crane (symbols of longevity) as creatures of a different species, and looked upon life and death as morning and evening.
“Pao-p’u Tzu answered: Life and death, beginning and end are indeed the great laws of the universe. Yet the similarities and differences of things are not uniform. Some are this way some are that. Tens of thousands of varieties are in constant change and transformation, strange and without any definite pattern. Whether things are this way or that, and whether they are regular or irregular in their essential and subsidiary aspects, cannot be reduced to uniformity. There are many who say that whatever has a beginning must have an end. But it is not in accord with the principle of existence to muddle things together and try to make them all the same. People say that things are bound to grow in the summer, and yet the shepherd’s-purse and the water chestnut wilt. People say that plants are bound to wither in the winter, and yet the bamboo and the cypress flourish. People say whatever has a beginning will have an end, and yet Heaven and earth are unending. People say whatever is born will die, and yet the tortoise and the crane live forever. When the yang is at its height, it should be hot, and yet the summer is not without cold days. When the yin reaches its limit, it should be cold, and yet even a severe winter is not without brief warm periods.
“Among creatures none surpasses man in intelligence. As creatures of such superior nature, men should be equal and uniform. And yet they differ in being virtuous or stupid, in being perverse or upright, in being fair or ugly, tall or short, pure or impure, chaste or lewd, patient or impatient, slow or quick. What they pursue or avoid in their interests and what their eyes and ears desire are as different as Heaven and earth, and as incompatible as ice and coals. Why should you only wonder at the fact that immortals are different and do not die like ordinary people? But people with superficial knowledge are bound by what is ordinary and adhere to what is common. They all say that immortals are not seen in the world, and therefore they say forthwith that there cannot be immortals.
“Among men some are wise and some are stupid, but they all know that in their bodies they have a heavenly component (hun) and an earthly component (p’o) of the soul. If these are partly gone, man becomes sick. If they are completely gone, man dies. If they are partially separated from the body, the occult expert has means to retain and restrict them. If they are entirely separated, there are principles in the established rites to recall them. These components of the soul as entities are extremely close to us. And yet although we are born with them and live with them throughout our life, we never see or hear them. Should one say that they do not exist simply because we have not seen or heard of them?”
“The Merit System” - “As Heaven and earth are the greatest of things, it is natural, from the point of view of universal principles, that they have spiritual power. Having spiritual power it is proper that they reward good and punish evil. Nevertheless, their expanse is great and their net is wide-meshed. There is not necessarily an immediate response as soon as this net is set in operation. As we glance over the Taoist books of discipline, however, all are unanimous in saying that those who seek immortality must set their minds to the accumulation of merit and the accomplishment of good work. Their hearts must be kind in all things. They must treat others as they treat themselves, and extend their humaneness (jen) even to insects. They must rejoice in the fortune of men and pity their suffering, relieve the destitute and save the poor. Their hands must never injure life, and their mouths must never encourage evil. They must consider the success and failure of others as their own. They must not regard themselves highly, nor praise themselves. They must not envy those superior to them, nor flatter dangerous and evil-minded people. In this way they may become virtuous and blessed by Heaven; they may be successful in whatever they do, and may hope to become immortal.
“If on the other hand, they hate good and love evil, if their words do not agree with their thoughts; if they say one thing in people’s presence and the opposite behind their backs; if they twist the truth; if they are cruel to subordinates or deceive their superiors; if they betray their task and are ungrateful for kindness received; if they manipulate the law and accept bribes; if they tolerate injustice but suppress justice; if they destroy the public good for their selfish ends; if they punish the innocent, wreck people’s homes, pocket their treasures, injure their bodies or seize their positions; if they overthrow virtuous rulers or massacre those who have surrendered to them; if they slander saints and sages or hurt Taoist priests; if they shoot birds in flight or kill the unborn in womb or egg; if in spring or summer hunts they burn the forests or drive out the game; if they curse spiritual beings; if they teach others to do evil or conceal their good deeds or endanger others for their own security; if they claim the work of others as their own; if they cause division in people’s families or disgrace others in order to win; if they overcharge or underpay; if they set fire or inundate; if they injure people with trickery or coerce the weak; if they repay good with evil; if they take things by force or accumulate wealth through robbery and plunder; if they are unfair or unjust, licentious, indulgent or perverted; if they oppress orphans or mistreat widows; if they squander inheritance and accept charity; if they cheat or deceive; if they love to gossip about people’s private affairs or criticize them for their defects; if they drag Heaven and earth into their affairs and rail at people in order to seek vindication; if they fail to repay debts or play fair in the exchange of goods; if they seek to gratify their desires without end; if they hate and resist the faithful and sincere; if they disobey orders from above or do not respect their teachers; if they ridicule others for doing good; if they destroy people’s crops or harm their tools so as to nullify their utility, and do not feed people with clean food; if they cheat in weights or measures; if they mix spurious articles with genuine; if they take dishonorable advantage; if they tempt others to steal; if they meddle in the affairs of others or go beyond their position in life; if they leap over wells or hearths (which provide water and fire for food); if they sing in the last day of the month (when the end should be sent off with sorrow) or cry in the first day of the month (when the beginning should be welcomed with joy); if they commit any of these evil deeds, it is a sin.
“The Arbiter of Human Destiny will reduce their terms of life by units of three days or a hundred days in proportion to the gravity of the evil. When all days are deducted, they will die. Those who have the intention to do evil but have not carried it out will have three-day units taken just as if they had acted with injury to others. If they die before all their evil deeds are punished, their posterity will suffer for them.
“Someone asked: Is it true that he who cultivates the way (to become an immortal) should first accomplish good deeds?
“Pao-p’u Tzu answered: Yes, it is true. The middle section of the Yu-ch’ien ching says: ‘The most important thing is to accomplish good works. The next is the removal of faults. For him who cultivates the way, the highest accomplishment of good work is to save people from danger so they may escape from calamity, and to preserve people from sickness so that they may not die unjustly. Those who aspire to be immortals should regard loyalty, filial piety, harmony, obedience, love and good faith as their essential principles of conduct. If they do not cultivate moral conduct but merely devote themselves to occult science, they will never attain everlasting life. If they do evil, the Arbiter of Human Destiny will take off units of 300 days from their allotted life if the evil is great, or units of three days if the evil is small. Since the punishment depends on the degree of evil, the reduction in the span of life is in some cases great and in others small. When a man is endowed with life and given a life span, he has his own definite number of days. If his number is large, the units of 300 days and of three days are not easily exhausted and therefore he dies later. On the other hand, if one’s allotted number is small and offenses are many, then the units are soon exhausted and he dies early.’
“The book also says: ‘Those who aspire to be terrestrial immortals should accomplish 300 good deeds and those who aspire to be celestial immortals should accomplish 1,200. If the 1,199th good deed is followed by an evil one, they will lose all their accumulation and have to start all over. It does not matter whether the good deeds are great or the evil deed is small. Even if they do no evil but talk about their good deeds and demand reward for their charities, they will nullify the goodness of these deeds although the other good deeds are not affected.’ The book further says: ‘If good deeds are not sufficiently accumulated, taking the elixir of immortality will be of no help.’”
On Taoism and Confucianism, Pao-p’u Tzu said: “Taoism is the essence of Confucianism and Confucianism is an appendage to Taoism. First of all, there was the teaching of the yin-yang school which had many taboos that made people constrained and afraid. The Confucianists had extensive learning but little that was essential; they worked hard but achieved little. Moism emphasized thrift but was difficult to follow and could not be practiced exclusively. The Legalists were severe and showed little kindness; they destroyed humanity and righteousness. The teachings of the Taoist school alone enable men’s spirits to be concentrated and united and their action to be in harmony with the formless. Taoism embraces the good points of both Confucianism and Moism and combines the essentials of the Legalists and Logicians. It changes with the times and responds to the transformations of things. Its precepts are simple and easy to understand; its works are few but its achievements many. It is devoted to the simplicity that preserves the Great Heritage and adheres to the true and correct source.”
Not surprisingly, Taoism is very much alive on Taiwan. The foreigner may not be able to distinguish between its temples and those of Buddhism. Nor are the people overly concerned about theological differences. They visit a Taoist or Buddhist temple or shrine more as a matter of convenience than in deliberate purposefulness. The Tao “way” differs from the Buddhist “wheel” - but the spirit is much the same.